AFP

Scientists often study the grim impacts of losing wildlife to hunting, habitat destruction and climate change. But what happens when endangered animals are brought back from the brink?

Research has shown restoring so-called “keystone” species — those with an outsized impact on their environment — is vital for the health of ecosystems, and can come with unexpected benefits for humans.

Here are some notable examples from North America. 

– Wolves –

Few species evoke the American wild as much as wolves. 

Though revered by Indigenous communities, European colonists who arrived in the 1600s embarked on widespread extermination campaigns through hunting and trapping.

By the mid-20th century, fewer than a thousand gray wolves were left in the continental United States, down from at least a quarter million before colonization.

Extinction was averted in the 1970s when lawmakers passed the Endangered Species Act, helping revive the apex predator in parts of its former range.

Then, in the mid-1990s, the government took wolves from Canada and reintroduced them to Yellowstone National Park.

This generated a wealth of data that scientists are still working to understand.

The new arrivals kept elk numbers down, preventing them from over-browsing vegetation that provides material for birds to build nests and beavers to build dams — a phenomenon known as a trophic cascade.

The recovered vegetation helped stop soil erosion into rivers, changing their course by reducing meandering.

While building their dams, the beavers also create deep ponds that juvenile fish and frogs need to survive.

When they embark on hunts, wolves focus on weak and diseased prey, ensuring survival of the fittest.

A recent paper even found that wolves brought back in the midwestern state of Wisconsin kept deer away from roads, reducing collisions with cars.

Amaroq Weiss, a biologist and senior wolf advocate for the Center for Biological Diversity compared ecosystems to tapestries, “and when we take out some of the threads, we weaken that tapestry,” she told AFP.

It’s thought there are now more than 6,000 gray wolves in the US. The main threat is legalized hunting in some states.

– Buffalo –

The story of the American buffalo — also known as bison — is inextricably linked to the dark history of the early United States.

From an estimated 30 million, their number plummeted to just hundreds by the late 19th century as the US government sought to wipe out plains tribe Indians whose way of life depended on the animal.

“It was an intentional genocide to remove the buffalo, to the remove the Indians and force them onto reservations,” Cody Considine of The Nature Conservancy (TNC) told AFP.

Buffalo, he explained, are an integral part of TNC’s efforts to re-establish prairies in the Nachusa Grasslands of Illinois.

The buffalo, who were introduced there in 2014 and now number around a hundred, favor eating grass over flowering plants and legumes, which in turn allows a variety of birds, insects and amphibians to flourish.

“Some of these species without that grazing simply just disappear off the landscape due to the high competition of the grasses,” added Considine.

As they forage, bisons’ hooves kick up and aerate the soil, further aiding in plant growth as well as seed dispersion. 

TNC currently manages some 6,500 buffalo, and is creating a pilot program with tribal partners that involves transferring excess animals to Indigenous communities, as part of broader efforts to revive America’s national mammal. 

Some 20,000 buffalo are now thought to roam in “conservation herds,” though none are truly free roaming, added Considine.

– Sea otters –

As the dominant predator of marine nearshore environments, sea otters play a hugely important role in their ecosystem.

Historically they spanned from Baja California up the West Coast up to Alaska, Russia and northern Japan, but hunting in the 1700s and 1800s decimated their numbers, which were once up to 300,000. 

They were thought for a while to have been completely exterminated off California, but a small surviving population of around 50 helped them partially recover to some 3,000 today.

Jess Fujii, sea otter program manager at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, told AFP that research during the 1970s in the Aleutian Islands showed the otters maintained the balance of kelp forest by keeping a check on the sea urchins that graze on them.

In the last decade, more complex interactions have come to light. These include the downstream benefits of otters for eelgrass habitats in California estuaries. 

Here, the sea otters controlled the population of crabs, which meant there were more sea slugs who were able to graze algae, keeping the eelgrass healthy.

Eelgrass is considered a “nursery of the sea” for juvenile fish, and it also reduces erosion, which can factor in coastal floods.

“Kelp and eelgrass are often considered good ways to sequester carbon which can help mitigate the ongoing impacts of climate change,” stressed Fujii, a prime example of how destruction of nature can worsen planetary warming.

A local fishing ban off the southern French coast has won praise from environmentalists and fishermen alike, a rare example of biodiversity protection dovetailing with business interests.

Almost two decades after the ban, Cap Roux, a coastal tip of the Esterel mountain range near the resort of Saint-Raphael on the Mediterranean coast, is a biodiversity haven. 

It stands in stark contrast to many other places on the Cote d’Azur where unbridled construction, overfishing and heavy shipping traffic have spoiled the once-pristine natural environment.

More than 80 species of marine life thrive off Cap Roux, attracted by meadows of seagrass and so-called “living rock” beneath the waves, a fusion of coral and algae.

Fishing here has been forbidden since 2004, a ban covering 450 hectares (1,112 acres).

Surprisingly to some, local fishermen called for the restriction, saying fish needed a safe place to breed and grow to renew stocks.

“Fishermen were worried about their future, and said ‘let’s find a space for a nursery that will replenish the surrounding waters,'” said Christian Decugis, Saint-Raphael’s first fishing mediator.

– ‘More fish, bigger fish’ –

The fish sanctuary lies in the heart of an EU-protected reserve, chosen because it is a relatively unspoilt natural spot, far from the coast’s commercial ports.

“There would have been no point creating a reserve in an area that’s already been messed up,” said Decugis.

The ban has resulted in “many more fish and bigger fish, and an abundance of species”, he said, an observation backed by scientific studies and experiments.

Evidence shows the haven status has helped protect populations of grouper and corb, with scorpion fish and sea bream doing particularly well.

A 2017 study by APAM, an association promoting sustainable fishing, said that income for fishermen was “significantly higher” near the sanctuary than in zones farther away.

Beyond financial benefits, the new system also improves the reputation of the fishing community, which is often accused of having little concern for the consequences of relentlessly exploiting the sea’s resources.

“The image of a profession that is getting a handle on things and that thinks about tomorrow is very motivating for the fishermen,” Decugis said.

– ‘Open treasure chest’ –

Not everyone is so protective of the restricted zone, with poachers tempted to plunder its healthy and plentiful fish supplies.

“It’s like an open treasure chest”, Decugis said.

Julia Toscano, co-manager of the reserve, regularly goes out on a boat between May and September to check the no-fishing zone.

She calls police if she notices anything suspicious. Soon, she hopes there will be cameras to make the job easier.

Many violations are carried out by tourists who go fishing unaware of the rules, but Toscano said this is “still poaching”.

Regular campaigns inform visitors of the regulations and explain why the rich fishing grounds are off-limits.

But it’s a growing challenge: the number of tourists has shot up over the last three years.

Many come on big pleasure boats, typically over 24 metres (79 feet) long.

The abundance of fish and colourful reefs also attract divers, who generate 500,000 euros ($516,000) in income each year for local diving clubs, according to Fabien Rozec, who runs the region’s marine life watchdog.

EU funds have allowed the clubs to get hold of eco-friendly buoys, so they no longer have to lower anchors on the fragile seabed.

Even pleasure boats have grown more cautious over the years, Rozec said, anchoring on patches of sand rather than underwater flora.

Delegates from nearly 200 countries meet in Montreal next week to hammer out a new global biodiversity deal to protect ecosystems and species from further human destruction.

The meeting follows crucial climate change talks in Egypt in November, where leaders failed to forge any breakthroughs on scaling down fossil fuels and slashing planet-warming emissions.

Observers are hoping the COP15 biodiversity talks in Montreal will deliver a landmark deal to protect nature and reverse the damage humans have done to forests, wetlands, waterways and the millions of species that live in them. 

Around 50 percent of the global economy is dependent on nature, but scientists warn that humanity needs to drastically — and urgently — rethink its relationship with the natural world as fears of a sixth era of mass extinction grow.

“Our planet is in crisis,” said Elizabeth Maruma Mrema, the head of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), at a briefing ahead of the talks, adding that a global agreement on biodiversity was “crucial to ensure that the future of humankind on planet Earth is sustained”. 

So far, humanity has proven woeful at this.   

The so-called post-2020 biodiversity framework, delayed by two years because of the pandemic, will map out an official plan for nature until mid-century for most countries, with the exception of the United States, which has not signed up. 

It will include key targets to be met by 2030. 

But it comes after countries failed to meet a single one of the targets set for the previous decade. 

With new rules affecting key economic sectors — including agriculture, forestry and fishing — and covering everything from intellectual property to pollution and pesticides, delegates are grappling with an array of sticking points.   

So far, only two out of the 22 targets in the new deal have been agreed upon.

“We have to admit that success is not guaranteed,” an EU source close to the talks said. “We have a very difficult situation ahead of us.”

– Finance fight – 

While China currently chairs COP15, it is not hosting this year’s meeting because of the ongoing pandemic. 

Instead, it will be held from December 7 to 19 in Montreal, home of the CBD, which oversees the negotiations. 

Canada’s Prime Minister Justin Trudeau is the only world leader attending. Chinese President Xi Jinping has not said he will join, and neither side has invited other leaders to come, with time quickly running out. 

Observers fear the leaders’ absence sucks the momentum out of the negotiations and could scupper an ambitious final deal. 

Divisions have already emerged on the key issue of financing, with wealthy countries under pressure to funnel more money to developing nations for conservation.

A group of developing nations, including Brazil, South Africa and Indonesia, this year called for rich countries to provide at least $100 billion annually –- rising to $700 billion a year by 2030 — for biodiversity. 

But many Western nations are reluctant to create a distinct fund for nature.

Currently, most biodiversity funds for the developing world come from existing funding mechanisms, which often also include climate finance.   

Another fight is brewing over the issue of “biopiracy”, with many mainly African countries accusing wealthy nations of pillaging the natural world for ingredients and formulas used in cosmetics and medicines, without sharing the benefits with the communities from which they came. 

– Indigenous rights – 

One cornerstone target that has received broad support is the 30 by 30 target — a pledge to protect 30 percent of land and seas by 2030. Only 17 percent of land and about seven percent of oceans were protected in 2020.

So far, more than 100 countries formally support the goal, according to the EU-backed High Ambition Coalition which tracks the target.

The new goal will rely heavily on the involvement of indigenous peoples, who steward land that is home to around 80 percent of Earth’s remaining biodiversity, according to a landmark UN report on climate change impacts this year.

“It’s not going to work if indigenous peoples are not fully included,” Jennifer Tauli Corpuz of the non-profit Nia Tero told AFP. 

“We completely lose the integrity of the document”, added Corpuz, who is part of the indigenous caucus to the talks. 

Other items in the framework: elimination or redirection of hundreds of millions of dollars in harmful government subsidies; promoting sustainable farming and fishing, reducing pesticides; tackling invasive species and reforestation.

But implementation is perhaps the most crucial agenda item to ensure the pledges made are actually carried out by governments.  

“We need goals and targets that are measurable and they need to be related to clear indicators,” the EU source said, calling for “robust monitoring, planning, reporting and review”. 

Surrounded by deer and antelopes, Ghevar Ram caressed an injured fawn at a rescue centre run by India’s Bishnoi community, who have been fighting to protect the environment for more than 500 years.

Ram, a member of the Hindu sect, has devoted his life to animals, bringing those in distress to the centre and taking care of them until they are fit enough to be released back into the wild.

“I treat animals like my own children. This is what we are taught since our childhood,” Ram, 45, told AFP as he bottle-fed the fawn ahead of the UN Biodiversity Conference in Montreal next week.

The Bishnois are India’s original eco-warriors, willing to sacrifice themselves to protect animals and trees.

The sect, established in the 15th century by Guru Jambheshwar and which now claims about 1.5 million members, believes in the sanctity of all life, shunning meat and avoiding felling living trees.

Spread mostly in hamlets across Rajasthan, the community draws inspiration from Amrita Devi, a Bishnoi woman killed in 1730 while trying to protect a khejari — now the state tree.

According to legend, a local king in the desert state sent his men to cut wood to fuel cement lime kilns to build his palace.

Devi rushed out of her home in a Bishnoi village to block them, clasping a tree trunk to protect it.

“Despite her pleas, the men did not stop. She then hugged a tree, but the king’s men showed no mercy and chopped down the tree along with her head,” said Sukhdev Godara, a retired schoolteacher, his eyes glistening with emotion.

Her last words were recorded as: “A chopped head is cheaper than a felled tree.”

Other Bishnoi villagers — beginning with Devi’s three daughters — followed suit, hugging the trees as they were decapitated.

In all, 363 Bishnoi men, women, and children were killed, their sacrifice now commemorated with a monument in the village inscribed with each of their names and topped with a statue of Amrita Devi.

– ‘In harmony with nature’ –

The martyr is now a hero for the likes of Sita Devi, who fuels her cooking fire with cow dung cakes rather than firewood to feed her strictly vegetarian family.

A mother of seven, she also once breastfed an orphaned antelope fawn.

“I was working in the fields when I saw a fawn being attacked by feral dogs. I rescued the fawn and brought it home,” she said, dressed in a traditional long pink skirt and sparkling gold jewellery.

“I fed the fawn my own milk, and once he regained strength, I released it in the wild,” she recalled with pride.

Although a subsect of Hinduism, the Bishnoi do not cremate their dead because that would mean cutting down trees to fuel the fire.

“Our guru taught us to bury our dead instead,” said schoolteacher Godara.

Bishnoi men are mostly farmers and patrol the land to make sure no animal is harmed or hunted down.

Advocate Rampal Bhawad co-founded the Bishnoi Tiger Force, an environmental campaign group and anti-poaching vigilante organisation, after Bollywood superstar Salman Khan shot dead two black bucks while filming a movie in Rajasthan in 1998.

The community followed the case assiduously for 20 years until Khan was sentenced to five years in jail by a local court for violating the Wildlife Protection Act.

The penalty was later suspended on appeal, but not before Khan had spent several days in prison.

“We file police complaints and pursue cases till the guilty are punished,” Bhawad told AFP. 

In a world fighting the insidious effects of climate change, he said, “we should plant more and more trees.

“We should live in harmony with nature and be kind towards all living beings.”